Psychology Chapter 2 Notes

2-1 Erikson Psychosocial Development

Learning about psychological growth from infancy through old age was very interesting to me. Here are some key points I thought was Important.

Psychosocial Crisis – a crisis occurs when people feel compelled to a just to other than the norm or out of their comfort zone. They feel that they are not to expectations in society. There are stages of psychosocial development which are:

Trust Versus Mistrust (Birth to One year) infants learn that they can trust the world because they obviously cannot help themselves so their parents or caregivers satisfy their needs.

Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt( Two to Three) when toddlers are allowed and encouraged to things they are capable of doing at their own pace and way of thinking –and when there is judicious supervision by parents and teachers  the kids will develop a sense of autonomy ( willingness and ability to direct one’s own behavior). If parents and or caregivers are impatient and do everything for the child or shame young children they begin to have unacceptable behavior. They will develop feelings of self-doubt.

Initiative Versus Guilt (Four to Fives) if children of this age range is given freedom to explore and experiment, as well as if parents and teachers take their time to answer questions, tendencies toward initiative will be encouraged. In other words, if children this age are restricted and to feel that their questions have no point or a nuisance to older people and siblings, they will begin to act out and feel ashamed of themselves.

Industry Versus Inferiority (six to eleven years) at this stage children are made to feel the need of “having to be accepted”.  A child entering school is at point in development when behavior is dominated by intellectual curiosity and performance.  They know and understand they learn by a sense of industry. If they are encouraged and told how well of a job they are doing, they want to keep going and strive harder which is called industry. When a child’s efforts are unsuccessful or if they derided to treated as a bothersome, feelings are inferiority result.

  Identity Versus Role Confusion (twelve to eighteen years) the dangers at the stage are role of confusion. “Role of confusion is having no clear conception of appropriate types of behavior that others will react to favorably, “If they are unable to establish a sense of stability in various aspects of their lives, role confusion results” Chapter 2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development.  .

 Intimacy versus Isolation (young adulthood) “the hallmark of intimacy is the “ethical strength to abide by such commitments, even though they may call for significant sacrifices and compromise” Chapter 2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development.  

 Generativity Versus Stagnation (Middle age) having children and raising them. “It is productive and creative efforts in which adults take part (teaching) that have a positive effect on younger generations” Chapter 2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development.

Integrity versus Despair (Old age) this is a particular stage one should pay particular attention to. Industry versus inferiority and identity role confusion.

2-1c Helping students formulate an Identity- “One factor is that has long been known to have detrimental effect on one’s own sense of industry is competition” Chapter 2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development.

2-1d helping students formulate an Identity- The most complex of Erikson’s stages is identity versus role confusion. “Identity is an optimal sense of identity… is experienced merely as a sense of psychosocial well being” Chapter 2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development.

2-1e Adolescent Identity Statuses- Identity statuses, of which there are four, reflect the extent to which individuals have explored and committed themselves to a set of values on such critical issues as occupation, religion , sex role, and politics” Chapter 2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development. 

Four identity statuses:

 Identity diffusion- Not yet experienced. Crisis- Little serious thought given to occupation, gender, roles and values.  Commitment- Weak. Ideas about occupation, gender, roles, and values are easily changed as a result of positive behavior and negative feedback.

Foreclosure- Not experienced. Has never suffer doubts about identity issues. Commitment- strong. Has accepted and endorsed the values of his or her parents.

Moratorium- Partially experienced. Has given some thought to identity-related questions. Commitment- Weak. Has not achieved satisfactory answers.

 Identity achievement- fully experienced. Has considered and explored alternative positions regarding occupation, gender, roles, and values. Commitment- Strong. Has made self- chosen commitments to at least some aspects of identity.  

First, identify if achievement status evolves gradually over a period of years (10 or more in many as 6 cases) and may only occur among a relatively small percentage of individuals.

2-1f Criticisms of Erikson's Theory

Erikson occasionally carried out research investigations, most of his conclusions were bases on personal and subjective interpretations that have been only partly substantiated. Consequently his theory is viewed by as many as “a descriptive overview of social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how and why this development takes place.

2-2 Piaget: Cognitive Development

Piaget postulated that human beings inherit two basic tendencies: Organization (the tendency to systematize and combine processes into coherent general systems) and adaptations (the tendency to adjust to the environment).

Organization- refers to the tendency of all individuals to systematize or combine process into coherent (logically interrelated) systems.

Schemes- organized, generalization patterns of behavior or thought known as schemes, and these become the basis for understanding and adapting to the world in which they live.  The first two years or so schemes are largely sensory and motor. During childhood, schemes are cognitive but concrete. Adolescence, schemes become more internal and abstract.

Adaptation- the process of creating a good fit or match between one’s conception of reality and real life experiences one encounters is called adaptation. According to Piaget, adaption is accompanied by two sub processes: assimilation and accommodation.

Equilibration, Disequilibrium, and Learning- Piaget believed that people are driven to organize their schemes to achieve the best possible adaption to their environment. He called this equilibration for a detailed discussion. It is a state of disequilibrium, or perceived discrepancy between an existing scheme and something new. These processes are two sides of learning coin: for equilibration to occur, Disequilibration must already have occurred. Disequilibration can occur spontaneously within an individual through maturation and experience, or it can be stimulated by someone else such as a teacher.

Constructing Knowledge- Meaningful learning, they occurs when people create new ideas or knowledge, from existing information.

2-2b Stages of Cognitive Development- Organization and adaptation are what Piaget called Invariant functions. Schemes however are not invariant. They undergo systematic change at particular points in time. As a result, there are real differences between the ways children and adults think. The schemes of infants and toddlers, for example, are sensory and motor in nature. They are often referred to as habits or reflexes. In early childhood, schemes gradually become more mental in nature; during this period, they are called concepts or categories. Finally, by late adolescences or early adulthood, schemes are complex and result in what we call strategic or planful behavior.

Piaget concluded that schemes evolve through four stages. The rate at which a particular child proceeds through these stages varies, but Piaget believed the sequence is the same in all children.

Sensorimotor Stage- children acquire understandings primarily through sensory impressions and motor activities. Piaget called this the sensorimotor stage. An important cognitive milestone, object permanence, occurs between the fourth and eighth months.

Preoperational Stage- preschool and primary grades.

Piaget believed that many symbols are derived from mental imitation and involve both visual images and bodily sensations.

Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan: Moral Development

2-5a- study of morality by observing how children played. Piaget discovered that interpretations of rules followed by participants in marble games changed with age.  Piaget concluded they tend to lose interest in adult-imposed regulations and take delight in formulating their own variations of rules to fit a particular situation. Older children, however were more likely to base their judgment of guilt on the intent of each child. Piaget referred to the moral thinking of children up to the age of ten or so as the morality of constraint, but he also called moral realism. The thinking of children eleven or older Piaget called morality of cooperation. He occasionally used the term moral relativism.

Kohlberg’s six stages of Moral Reasoning:

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

Stage 1- Punishment-obedience orientation.

Stage 2- Instrumental relativist orientation.

Level 2- Conventional Morality

Stage 3- Good boy – nice girl orientation

Stage 4- Law –and- order orientation

Level 3- Post conventional Morality

Stage 5- Social contract orientation

Stage 6- Universal ethical principle orientation.

Kohlberg’s theory deals primarily with what are called macromoral issues. These are broad social issues such as rights, free speech, the women’s movement, and wilderness preservation. The focus is on how the behavior of individual affects the structure of society and public policy. At this level, A moral is one who attempts to influence laws and regulations because of a deeply help principle. Micromoral issues, on the other hand , concern [personal interactions in everyday situations, examples of which include courtesy and helpfulness.